Evolution of Political Theory
- Ancient Greek Philosophers perceived politics as a subdivision of philosophy driven by ideals and ethics. Socrates, a prominent philosopher, believed in the interconnectedness of politics and ethics, asserting that they are inseparable.
- These philosophers aimed for a fulfilled life enriched with knowledge, which influenced their belief in the value and virtue of the state. Socrates and Plato played foundational roles in establishing the basis of political science, while ancient Greeks also cultivated critical thinking and dialectical methods.
- Aristotle, Plato’s student, introduced practical considerations into political thought, earning him the title of the “father of Political Science.” Aristotle aimed to elevate political science to a comprehensive discipline, integrating it with other fields of knowledge. Both Plato and Aristotle viewed the state as a source of virtue and a natural institution designed to uphold equality and justice.
- Despite similarities, Plato and Aristotle diverged in their concepts of the state and rulers. The emphasis on the state and community over individuals led to a devaluation of individuality and human dignity. This devaluation is evident in Aristotle’s theory of slavery, which reflects a disregard for the individual’s worth.
- During medieval times, political science existed as a sub-discipline under the religious authority of the church and the state. This period is often viewed as a dark era, characterized by the overshadowing influence of religion and the subordination of state authority to the church. The concept of divine rights theory of kingship emerged during this time, granting rulers unchecked power to govern.
- The Renaissance, Reformation, and Enlightenment movements brought about a significant shift in perspective. These movements emphasized the central importance of human life and profoundly impacted Western political thought, leading to transformative changes.
- Towards the end of the medieval period, Machiavelli introduced a realist approach to political science. His work, “The Prince,” advocated for a separation between politics, ethics, and religion, promoting a pragmatic view of politics.
- Incorporating principles from science, thinkers like Thomas Hobbes and Descartes approached political questions with a scientific mindset, aiming to understand them systematically.
- The emergence of utilitarianism marked a transformative moment in Western political thought. This philosophy cantered on pursuing human pleasure as the foundation for political decisions.
- Overall, the medieval era witnessed the subordination of political thought to religious and state authorities. The subsequent Renaissance, Reformation, and Enlightenment movements brought attention to human significance.
- The introduction of Machiavelli’s realism, the integration of scientific principles by thinkers like Hobbes and Descartes, and the rise of utilitarianism all played pivotal roles in reshaping Western political thought, moving it away from religious dominance and embracing a more pragmatic and human-centred approach.
- Thinkers like John Locke and Rousseau contributed to the development of modern liberal democratic political thought by introducing concepts like popular sovereignty and emphasizing human cooperation.
- This laid the groundwork for valuing principles such as liberty, equality, and justice, which were crucial in inspiring movements like the American and French revolutions.
- The pursuit of markets and colonies during the same era led to a rise in imperialism, both on a global scale and within Western nations. This period also witnessed a widening gap between the rich and the poor.
- In response to growing inequality, socialism emerged as a countermeasure, advocating for a more equitable redistribution of resources. Prominent figures like Charles Fourier, Saint Simon, and Robert Owen championed the cause of fair resource distribution.
- The Industrial Revolution introduced new production methods, such as the factory system, which often resulted in the exploitation of workers due to capitalism’s profit-driven nature.
- Karl Marx critically examined the dominance of the bourgeoisie in the economic hierarchy and developed a class-based interpretation of politics. Marx’s dialectical materialism presented an alternative perspective to Hegel’s idealism, highlighting the concept of false consciousness within ideology and emphasizing the necessity of revolutionary change for achieving absolute equality and justice.
- The transformation in political theory is evident when comparing classical and modern approaches. Classical thinkers prioritized knowledge and sought societal order, stability, and harmony.
- In contrast, modern thinkers brought political inquiry closer to scientific methods, focusing on objectivity and exploring actual realities rather than hypothetical assumptions.
- The endeavor to establish a science of politics is a distinctively modern pursuit involving interdisciplinary methodologies and relying on empirical facts for theorization.
- Both major contemporary ideological streams, liberalism and Marxism, claim to provide scientific frameworks for understanding the global political landscape.
- In conclusion, the journey of political theory has undergone significant shifts in focus, scope, methodology, and objectives. The ideas of thinkers like Locke, Rousseau, and Marx have shaped the foundations of modern political thought, ranging from democratic principles to critiques of inequality and capitalism.
Approaches in Political Science
What is an approach?
- In general parlance, approach means various ways or methods that can be applied to study, understand, and examine particular phenomena or subjects.
- In Political Science, the approach is considered a defining criterion for selecting problems, reliable data, and appropriate procedures for utilizing them to arrive at a conclusion.
- In Social Sciences, the term approach is sometimes interchanged with the term method. However, a method is a procedure for obtaining and utilizing data, while an approach focuses on their selection.
- Thus, an approach may belong to a particular method, but a method may not always be attached to a particular approach. For example, a behavioural approach is also a scientific method, and a normative approach is a philosophical method.
Traditional Approaches
Normative Approach/Philosophical Approaches
- The philosophical approach, originating as a sub-discipline of philosophy, is the oldest perspective within political science.
- Classical scholars primarily dealt with normative or philosophical issues like justice, equality, and individual rights and liberties.
- Socrates and Plato made significant contributions to philosophical thought, particularly in politics
Socrates
- Socrates, regarded as the father of philosophy, introduced the “theory of knowledge” which emphasized the understanding of abstract ideas as true knowledge.
- Socrates advocated logical reasoning and dialectics as the means to attain this superior knowledge.
- He argued that knowledge about the ever-changing physical world is impermanent, while knowledge from the enduring world of ideas is lasting.
Criticsm
- In the post-World War II era, behaviouralism rose in prominence, critiquing the philosophical approach. Behaviouralists prioritized the study of empirical facts over normative concerns, aiming to make political science a “pure science.”
- Lord Bryce emphasized the critical importance of empirical evidence, stating unequivocally, “We need facts, facts, and facts.”
- Critics argued that philosophical theories lacked verifiability and were divorced from reality.
- Philosophical theories faced criticism for being labelled as ‘armchair theories.’ Detractors argued that they lack verifiability, rendering them an unreliable source of knowledge. Additionally, these theories were accused of inherent bias and detachment from reality.
- Despite criticism, the philosophical approach remains a valuable perspective within political science, often complementing other approaches for a comprehensive understanding of political phenomena
- Contemporary scholars like John Rawls, Leo Strauss, Isaiah Berlin, and Dante Germino defend the philosophical approach within political science, considering it valuable and well-suited for the discipline.
- Politics is a highly intricate field, and the selection of an approach should be contingent upon the specific research objectives. Relying solely on a single approach is seldom adequate, as the multifaceted nature of political phenomena necessitates combining different approaches to gain a comprehensive understanding.
Historical Approach
- This approach is also one of the oldest in the study of politics. It is often viewed as the simplest and grounded in common-sense principles, forming the basis for understanding politics and constructing theories.
- History and politics are closely intertwined. Even in traditional international politics, the study has historically been cantered on “diplomatic history.” The relationship between the two disciplines is explained by the scholars as –
‘If history is a root, politics is a shoot’.
‘History is past politics, politics is present history’.
Sabine:
- According to Sabine, political ideas emerge during critical historical phases.
- He characterized the historical approach as one grounded in common sense, aligning with the need for a robust approach to political understanding.
- Sabine identified three key requirements for this approach: being factual, understanding causality, and providing evaluations.
Challenges
The historical approach, while popular, faces several significant challenges:
- Vastness of History: History is an extensive field, making it a challenging task to locate and extract relevant data for specific political inquiries. The sheer volume of historical information can be overwhelming.
- Relevance of Historical Concepts: Not all historical concepts align with contemporary political ideas. Concepts like the philosopher king or communism, while important in political science, might not have historical counterparts.
- Politicization of History: History as a discipline can be highly politicized. Edward Said’s work, “Orientalism,” illustrates how historical writing has often been a political project, influenced by the biases and interests of historians.
- Selective Use of History: Political scholars may not always use history in a rigorous and scientific manner. Like Machiavelli, they might selectively choose historical examples that align with their political agendas, potentially leading to biased interpretations.
- Historicism and Ideology: Critics, such as Karl Popper, have pointed out the dangers of historicism, where political scholars interpret history in ideological terms. For instance, when Marx explains history as a product of class struggle, it serves a clear political purpose.
- Dependency on History: John Plamanetz argues against over-reliance on history to understand political ideas. He suggests that political ideas should be comprehended through logical analysis rather than being excessively tied to historical narratives.
Empirical approach
| Aspect | Empirical Approach | Normative/Philosophical Approach |
|---|---|---|
| 1. Approach Nature | Study of facts | Study of Ideas |
| 2. Method | Observation | Method: Logic |
| 3. Purpose | Descriptive (They describe what reality is) | Prescriptive or Normative (They tell what should be) |
| 4. Criteria | True and false | The criteria is right and wrong |
| 5. Orientation | Status quoist | Change oriented |
Machiavelli:
- Machiavelli proposed an empirical approach alongside the historical approach. He cautioned rulers (princes) against dwelling in the realm of abstract ideas and instead recommended a focus on observing and understanding things as they are. In essence, he advocated for a practical, real-world approach.
- If Plato emphasized philosophy (what ought to be), Machiavelli stressed the importance of observation (what is).
John Locke:
- John Locke favoured empiricism over Socrates’ theory of knowledge. He rejected the notion that knowledge is inherently imprinted on the human soul.
- Instead, Locke proposed that the human mind is like a “tabula rasa” or a clean slate, and knowledge is acquired through experience.
- According to Locke, observation and experience play a central role in shaping human knowledge.
Institutional – legal
- The Institutional Approach in political science can trace its origins back to the works of the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle. Aristotle examined and classified the constitutions of various Greek city-states, which laid some of the early foundations for understanding political institutions.
- This approach is closely associated with the Legal Approach, as it often involves the study of formal political institutions, their structures, functions, and legal aspects.
- Traditionally, political science has centred on the study of the state and government. Governments, in turn, consist of various institutions and organs, such as the legislature (parliament), executive (president or administration), and judiciary (courts).
- The Institutional Approach strongly emphasizes understanding these governmental structures and their roles in the political process.
- Additionally, it extends its scope to encompass political parties and other formal political organizations integral to the political landscape.
- In the Institutional Approach, an institution is defined as a hierarchical system of officers and agents, each with specific functions and powers. These institutions are characterized as persistent systems of activities and expectations, representing stable patterns of group behaviour.
- The methodology employed in this approach is often descriptive and institutional. It involves studying the processes and functions of particular institutions within a political system.
- The goal is to provide valuable insights into the organization of these institutions, discuss potential reforms, and offer general conclusions about their performance.
- Several notable political thinkers and scholars have adopted and contributed to the Institutional Approach.
- Polybius, who studied the Roman Republic’s mixed constitution;
- Finer, known for his work on comparative government;
- James Bryce, a renowned political scientist and historian;
- J. Laski, who delved into the nature of political authority;
- Maurice Duverger, a prominent scholar of political parties;
- G.A. Almond, who made significant contributions to the study of comparative politics
Criticsm
Critics of the Institutional Approach argue several limitations.
- They contend that it is primarily descriptive, lacking the ability to construct wide-reaching theories.
- Some argue that it may not be applicable to developing countries or situations with distinct political dynamics.
- Another criticism is its perceived overemphasis on formal institutions while neglecting the influence of individuals, informal groups, and informal political activities that can significantly impact these institutions.
- It is criticized for its limited utility in the study of international politics, as it primarily focuses on organizations like the United Nations and its affiliates.
