- The emergence of contemporary political science can be traced back to the 19th century, a period marked by the rapid growth of the natural sciences. This era witnessed a growing enthusiasm for creating new social sciences, including political science.
- The United States marked a significant milestone in the development of political science as a distinct discipline. The American Political Science Association played a pivotal role in this process. The association’s efforts led to the establishment of political science as an autonomous discipline, separating it from fields such as history, philosophy, economics, and law.
- Instead, political science was brought closer to disciplines like sociology, anthropology, and others within the social sciences. This shift in focus and the formalization of political science as an independent field allowed for the systematic study and analysis of political phenomena, institutions, and processes, contributing to the growth and evolution of the discipline into what we recognize today.
- Contemporary approaches in political science find their roots in the works of Graham Wallas (“Human Nature in Politics”) and Arthur Bentley (“The Process of Government”).
- These approaches prioritize the study of political processes over solely focusing on political institutions.
- Traditional theories often depicted humans as rational beings, but modern psychology revealed the complexity of human nature.
- Wallas emphasized the importance of exploring facts and evidence to understand human nature and its expression in human behaviours.
- The political process, according to Wallas, can be comprehended by analysing how people actually behave in political situations, moving away from mere speculation about how they should behave.
- This empirical approach marked a departure from traditional political thought, shaping contemporary approaches in political science.
- The contributions of scholars like Robert Dahl, Phillip Converse, and David Easton brought about a shift in the field. Instead of primarily focusing on political institutions or the interpretation of legal texts, they redirected attention toward the study of political behaviour.
- This transformation led political scientists to delve into the understanding of political processes such as political socialization, political ideologies, political culture, political participation, leadership, and even political violence.
- Achieving comprehension in these areas necessitated interdisciplinary research, underlining the evolving nature of political science
Behaviouralism
- The behavioural approach in political science represents a profound shift in the discipline’s epistemology and even its ontology. This approach brings about a comprehensive transformation, affecting not only the methods employed but also the scope and nature of the discipline itself.
- Due to the profound changes it ushers in, behaviouralism is often referred to as a “revolution” in political science, although some scholars may also describe it as a “movement.”
Emergence of Behaviouralism
The emergence of behaviouralism in political science can be understood within the context of several historical circumstances:
- Post-World War II Academic Conferences: Academic conferences that took place in the aftermath of World War II were held under the auspices of the United Nations. These conferences invited scholars from various disciplines to provide insights and ideas for post-war reconstruction and development. Interestingly, political scholars were notably absent from these gatherings, reflecting the perception that their field had little relevant contributions to offer. At this point, political science had become a somewhat stagnant discipline.
- Focus on Historical Scholarship: Political scholars at the time were primarily engaged in studying historical ideas and concepts rather than addressing contemporary issues. Historically-oriented scholars like Sabine and Dunning were deeply involved in writing the history of Western philosophy, spanning from Plato to Marx. This historical focus led to a disconnect from pressing real-world concerns.
- Lack of Scientific Methods: In contrast to disciplines like sociology, which had long incorporated scientific methods and positivism into their research approaches, political science lagged behind in adopting rigorous scientific methods. The field had not yet embraced empirical research techniques or a positivist mindset.
- Theoretical and Armchair Nature: Many political theories of the time were characterized as “armchair theories,” developed in a theoretical and often abstract manner with limited practical relevance. These theories lacked empirical grounding and practical applicability, further underscoring the need to shift toward more scientific and behaviour-oriented approaches in political science.
Charles E. Merriam:
- He is the founder of the Chicago School, offered critical insights in his book “New Aspects of Politics.”
- He chastised Political Science for its perceived lack of scientific rigor. One of his key criticisms was directed towards historians, whom he accused of neglecting the significant roles played by psychological, sociological, and economic factors in shaping human affairs
G.E.G. Catlin:
- Catlin, in his work “Science and Method of Politics” (1927), advocated for the pursuit of a value-free approach to political science
- He regarded power as the essence of politics and stressed that its analysis should remain impartial, devoid of favouritism toward any particular value system.
David Easton:
- In his article titled “Decline of Modern Political Theory,” David Easton identifies a significant issue in the discipline of political science, which he attributes to a preoccupation with the past and a failure to engage in the systematic development of political behaviour theory
- David Easton further contributed to the intellectual foundation of behaviouralism in his 1967 paper titled “The Current Meaning of Behaviouralism in Political Science.” In this paper, he delineated eight major tenets of behaviouralism:
- Regularities: This tenet emphasizes the importance of identifying discoverable patterns and uniformities in political behaviour.
- Verification: Behaviouralism advocates for empirical testing to substantiate theories and hypotheses.
- Technique: It focuses on the methods used to collect and interpret data, highlighting the significance of sound research techniques.
- Quantification: Behaviouralism promotes data measurement and subsequent analysis as crucial aspects of scientific inquiry.
- Values: This tenet underscores the need to separate values from facts. It emphasizes that objective scientific inquiry should remain value-neutral.
- Systemization: Behaviouralism seeks to establish a systematic connection between theory and research, enhancing the scientific rigor of political analysis.
- Pure Science underscores the importance of understanding and explaining political behaviour to find practical solutions to real-world problems.
- Integration: Behaviouralism encourages an interdisciplinary approach to political science, recognizing that insights from various fields can enrich the study of political behaviour.
- These guidelines are conducive to conducting political inquiries that generate reliable theories and scientific explanations. Behaviouralism has applied these principles to analyse various aspects of political behaviour, including mass political participation, voting behaviour, elite decision-making, and the activities of non-state actors, to provide systematic explanations.
- Notably, behaviouralism has concentrated on micro-level situations, favouring specific inquiries over broad generalizations. It places an emphasis on formulating research questions that can be effectively addressed using available research methods, contributing to the empirical foundation of political science.
Achievements of Behaviouralists
Behaviouralists in political science achieved several notable accomplishments:- Halting the Decline of Political Science: At a time when political science was experiencing a decline and a lack of relevance, behaviouralists played a pivotal role in revitalizing the discipline. Their emphasis on empirical research and the study of political behaviour injected new life into the field.
- Advancements in Electoral Behaviour Analysis: Behaviouralists significantly contributed to the analysis of electoral behaviour. Their research in this area has been highly beneficial for political parties, aiding them in formulating effective strategies and policies. By understanding how individuals make political choices, parties can effectively tailor their campaigns.
- Bridging the Gap Between Theory and Practice: Behavioural research helped bridge the gap between political theory and real-world political practice. For instance, scholars from different perspectives, such as elitists and pluralists, conducted empirical investigations to understand the functioning of democracy in Western countries and the realities of socialism in communist nations. This empirical approach allowed for a more accurate assessment of political systems.
- Insight into Developing Areas: Behavioural research proved especially valuable in studying political systems in developing regions. In these areas, a disparity often exists between the formal constitution and actual political practices. Traditional approaches like legal and institutional analysis have proved insufficient to grasp the complexities of these contexts. Therefore, behaviouralists turned to field studies and comparative politics, shedding light on the intricate dynamics of politics in developing countries.
Post-behaviouralism
- Post-behaviouralism emerged as a reaction to certain aspects of behaviouralism that had led to dissatisfaction within the field of political science. The evolution of political science can be understood through two stages of decline:
- First Decline (Pre-World War II): Before the Second World War, traditionalists, particularly historicists, were primarily responsible for the decline of political science. This decline was addressed and countered by the emergence of behaviouralism, which introduced empirical and scientific approaches to the field.
- Second Decline (1950s and 60s): The second decline in political science occurred during a period of significant activism in the United States, marked by civil rights movements, women’s movements, environmental activism, and peace movements. Policymakers sought guidance from political scholars to address these societal crises, but it was discovered that behaviouralists, who were largely focused on making political science a pure science, were ill-equipped to provide relevant solutions. This resulted in a compromise regarding the subject’s scope and relevance.
- During this period, behaviouralists placed excessive emphasis on scientific techniques. However, political science has limitations in terms of the applicability of scientific methods.
- David Easton, a prominent figure in behaviouralism, acknowledged this when he stated that political scholars, engrossed in perfecting their techniques, had neglected the fundamental purpose for which they were intended.
- It became evident that while behaviouralists had made significant contributions, particularly in the realm of election studies, such studies alone were insufficient.
- Political scholars could not disregard normative issues such as justice, rights, and liberties. Scholars like Alfred Cobban criticized positivists and empiricists, while Dante Germino attributed the discipline’s decline to “ideological reductionists.”
- These criticisms underscored the need for a more comprehensive and balanced approach to political science that incorporates both empirical research and normative considerations.
David Easton
- Easton delivered a lecture to the American Political Science Association titled ‘Credo of Relevance.’ This lecture laid the foundation for post-behaviouralism. In this lecture, Easton called for a shift in how political science research is conducted.
- Easton introduced the concept of ‘Creative theory,‘ which had two central parameters: Action and Relevance. As Easton envisioned it, creative theory required political scientists to prioritize research that was academically rigorous and had practical applications in the real world. This meant that research should be action-oriented and relevant to address society’s pressing issues.
- Easton acknowledged that political science was experiencing a decline in relevance and impact, and he attributed part of this decline to the dominance of behaviouralism. With its focus on empirical methods and the study of individual behavior, behaviouralism has led to a detachment from real-world issues and a lack of practical application in policy-making.
- Easton emphasized that while research techniques and methodologies were important, they should always serve a greater purpose. In other words, the purpose behind conducting research should take precedence over the techniques used. This shift in perspective aimed to bridge the gap between academic research and practical societal needs.
- Post-behaviouralism was not conceived as rejecting behaviouralism but rather as an evolution. It sought to build upon the foundations of behaviouralism while addressing its limitations. This could be likened to a synthesis of ideas, where traditionalism represented the thesis, behaviouralism the antithesis, and post-behaviouralism the synthesis of the two.
- Post-behaviouralism retained many of the assumptions, methodologies, and approaches of behaviouralism. This continuity ensured that the advancements made in the behaviouralist era were not discarded but integrated into the evolving political science framework.
- A significant departure from behaviouralism was the willingness within post-behaviouralism to compromise on research techniques if it meant achieving greater relevance. This flexibility in methodology allowed political scientists to adapt their research to better address real-world issues and concerns.
- Another key departure from behaviouralism was the recognition of the importance of values in research and decision-making. Post-behaviouralism departed from the value-neutral stance of behaviouralism, acknowledging that values played a crucial role in shaping research agendas and influencing policy choices.
David Easton’s seven features of post-behaviouralism:
- Technique and Purpose: Post-behaviouralism recognizes the importance of research techniques but emphasizes the purpose for which these techniques are employed. It values relevance over precision, understanding that research must address real-world issues.
- Inclusion of Values: Unlike behaviouralism, which favoured value-neutrality, post-behaviouralism encourages the incorporation of values into the study of political science. It recognizes that values play a crucial role in shaping political behaviour and outcomes.
- Problem Solving: Post-behaviouralism emphasizes that political theories should be able to address and resolve societal crises effectively. It calls for practical solutions to real-world challenges.
- Promotion of Positive Values: Post-behaviouralism advocates for promoting values that contribute to the advancement and flourishing of human civilization. It recognizes the importance of values in guiding political behaviour and decision-making.
- Applied Science: Post-behaviouralism views political science as applied rather than pure science. It underscores the practical implications and applications of political research.
- Responsibility of Social Scientists: Post-behaviouralism places a significant responsibility on social scientists, including political scientists. It acknowledges that they are crucial in addressing complex societal issues and providing insights and solutions.
- Promotion of Political Science: Post-behaviouralism calls for the active promotion of political science by universities and research foundations. It underscores the discipline’s utility in understanding and addressing the challenges of contemporary society.
